Flint's 90th-percentile lead level dropped below the EPA action limit in 2019 and has stayed there. The cities with the worst lead-in-water problems today are Chicago (400,000+ lead service lines), Cleveland (200,000+ LSLs), Milwaukee (70,000 LSLs), Pittsburgh (25,000 LSLs post-2016 corrosion control failure), Detroit (tens of thousands remaining), and Jackson, MS (under EPA enforcement order since 2022). These cities face 10-20 year replacement timelines under the EPA's October 2024 Lead and Copper Rule Improvements.
Flint became America's symbol of lead-in-water failure after the 2014 Flint River disaster. But here's what the data shows now: Flint's 90th-percentile lead level–the metric the EPA uses to determine compliance–fell below the 15 parts per billion (ppb) action level in 2019. It's stayed there. The city replaced over 25,000 lead service lines between 2016 and 2020 under intense federal oversight and media scrutiny.
The cities that didn't get the same attention are where the problem lives today. Chicago has an estimated 400,000 lead service lines–more than any US city. Cleveland has over 200,000. Pittsburgh's water system triggered a lead crisis in 2016 when it changed corrosion control treatment. Jackson, Mississippi, operates under an EPA Administrative Order after its treatment plant collapsed in 2022. These aren't hypothetical risks–these are documented EPA violations, Consumer Confidence Report exceedances, and ongoing enforcement actions as of 2026.
The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (2021) allocated $15 billion specifically for lead service line replacement, with an additional $11.7 billion through the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund. The EPA's October 2024 Lead and Copper Rule Improvements (LCRI) requires utilities to inventory all lead service lines by 2027 and replace them within 10 years–with some extensions granted to larger systems. The question is which cities are on track and which aren't.
Lead in drinking water is not the dominant source of childhood lead poisoning in the US–paint and contaminated dust account for most cases. But water matters. A 2018 study by Hauptman and colleagues published in BMC Public Health found that approximately 3% of US children with improved blood lead levels are exposed primarily through drinking water. That's roughly 18,000 children per year based on CDC surveillance data. The risk concentrates in older cities where lead service lines connect water mains to homes built before the 1986 Safe Drinking Water Act amendments banned lead pipes.
The EPA's Lead and Copper Rule sets an action level of 15 ppb measured at the 90th percentile of sampled high-risk homes. If 10% of tested homes exceed 15 ppb, the utility must act–optimize corrosion control, conduct public education, and in severe cases, replace lead service lines. According to the EPA's 2021 estimate, 9.2 million lead service lines remain in use nationwide. The October 2024 LCRI tightened that requirement: utilities must now replace all lead service lines within 10 years of inventory completion (2027 deadline for inventory, 2037 for replacement). Cities with the largest inventories received extensions–Chicago got 20 years.
But compliance data tells a different story than inventory counts. The EPA's Enforcement and Compliance History Online (ECHO) database tracks violations. Between 2022 and 2026, dozens of water systems serving over 100,000 people recorded Lead and Copper Rule violations–exceedances of the action level, failure to optimize corrosion control, or missed sampling requirements. These are the cities where the problem is active right now.
Chicago has the largest lead service line inventory in the United States. The Chicago Department of Water Management's 2023 service line inventory documented 400,000+ lead service lines–roughly 80% of the city's water connections. Under the October 2024 LCRI, Chicago received the longest replacement extension granted to any US city: 20 years. That means full replacement by 2044 at the earliest.
The city's 90th-percentile lead level has fluctuated near the 15 ppb action level for years. Chicago's 2024 Consumer Confidence Report showed a 90th-percentile value of 11.4 ppb–below the action level but still indicating improved exposure. The city replaced roughly 8,000 lead service lines in 2023, accelerating from previous years thanks to federal funding. At that pace, full replacement would take 50 years, not 20. The city plans to triple its replacement rate by 2026 to meet the LCRI deadline.
Chicago's corrosion control uses orthophosphate to coat pipe interiors and reduce lead leaching. The treatment works–when it's maintained. A 2017 study by Del Toral and colleagues at the EPA found that even small lapses in corrosion control can trigger lead spikes. Chicago's water is also blended from Lake Michigan intakes, which means treatment consistency depends on source water pH and temperature fluctuations. Winter months show higher lead readings in some neighborhoods.
If you live in Chicago and your home was built before 1986, assume you have a lead service line until proven otherwise. The city's online service line lookup tool (chicago.gov/city/en/depts/water/provdrs/cust_serv/svcs/know-your-service-line-material.html) lets you check your address. If lead is present, request a free lead test kit from the city. The test is processed by an EPA-certified lab and results come back in 7-10 days. For immediate protection, use an NSF/ANSI 53-certified filter rated for lead removal. We track the best-rated filters in our water filtration guide.
Cleveland Water serves over 1.5 million people across Greater Cleveland. The utility's 2025 service line inventory documented over 200,000 lead service lines–the second-highest total in the US after Chicago. Unlike Chicago, Cleveland does not serve a single dense municipality; it's a regional system spanning multiple counties. That makes coordination harder. Replacement timelines vary by jurisdiction.
Cleveland's 90th-percentile lead level was 8.2 ppb in the 2024 reporting period–below the EPA action level but above the World Health Organization's guidance value of 5 ppb. The city replaced 3,200 lead service lines in 2023. At that rate, full replacement would take over 60 years. Cleveland received $47 million from the IIJA lead service line replacement fund in 2023, which the utility expects will double its replacement rate starting in 2026.
The challenge in Cleveland is partial replacements. Between 2000 and 2015, Cleveland replaced the public-side portion of thousands of lead service lines but left the private-side portion (from the curb stop to the house) in place. Research by Del Toral (EPA 2017) and Triantafyllidou (Virginia Tech 2007) found that partial replacements can temporarily increase lead exposure by disturbing pipe scale. Cleveland halted partial replacements in 2016 and now only does full replacements. But roughly 30,000 homes in the service area have partial replacements from the pre-2016 era. Those homes are priority targets under the LCRI.
Residents can request a free lead test from Cleveland Water. The utility prioritizes homes with children under six and pregnant women for expedited testing. If lead is detected above 5 ppb, Cleveland offers free pitcher filters and cartridge replacements for up to two years. For permanent protection, full service line replacement costs $3,000-$8,000 depending on excavation requirements. Cleveland's "Lead Safe Cleveland" program offers income-qualified homeowners grants covering up to $7,500 of replacement costs. Check eligibility at clevelandwater.com/lead-safe-home.
Milwaukee has one of the highest per-capita lead service line densities in the US. The Milwaukee Water Works 2024 inventory documented 68,000 lead service lines serving a city of 570,000 residents. That's roughly 12% of all households. The city's 90th-percentile lead level was 6.9 ppb in 2024–below the EPA action level but improved compared to systems using copper or PVC service lines.
Milwaukee replaced 3,100 lead service lines in 2023 and plans to replace 5,000 per year starting in 2026. The Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources accelerated the timeline by tying state Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSRF) loans to replacement commitments. Milwaukee must replace all lead service lines by 2032 under a state-EPA agreement–five years faster than the LCRI baseline.
Milwaukee's water chemistry is aggressive toward lead. The city sources water from Lake Michigan, which has naturally low alkalinity. Low-alkalinity water is corrosive, meaning it more readily dissolves lead from pipes. Milwaukee adds orthophosphate for corrosion control, but a 2019 Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) report found that Milwaukee's dosing was inconsistent during periods of high demand. The city upgraded its corrosion control system in 2022 to maintain stable phosphate levels year-round.
Milwaukee offers free lead testing for all residents. Request a kit at milwaukee.gov/water/leadtesting. Results typically return within 10 days. If lead exceeds 5 ppb, the city provides free faucet filters and six months of replacement cartridges. Milwaukee also runs a lateral replacement subsidy program: homeowners pay $1,600 (the private-side cost), and the city covers the public-side expense (roughly $4,800). Low-income households qualify for full cost coverage. We break down Milwaukee's program and similar initiatives nationwide in our lead service line replacement funding guide.
Pittsburgh's lead crisis started in 2016 when the Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority (PWSA) switched from a soda ash corrosion inhibitor to a cheaper lime-based treatment. Within months, lead levels spiked. The EPA issued an emergency order in 2017 requiring PWSA to revert to the previous treatment and accelerate lead service line replacement. The city documented over 25,000 lead service lines in its 2017 inventory.
PWSA's 90th-percentile lead level hit 22 ppb in 2017–well above the EPA action level. The utility switched back to orthophosphate-based corrosion control in 2018, and lead levels dropped. By 2024, the 90th-percentile value was 9.1 ppb. Still improved, but below the action level. PWSA has replaced roughly 12,000 lead service lines since 2017. At the current pace (2,500 per year), the remaining 13,000 lines will be replaced by 2031–within the LCRI timeline.
Pittsburgh's case illustrates a critical fact: corrosion control treatment is not optional. A 2009 study by Edwards and colleagues published in Environmental Science & Technology analyzed Washington, DC's lead crisis (2001-2004) and found that a switch from chlorine to chloramine disinfection disrupted the protective scale on lead pipes, causing a 20-fold increase in lead levels. Pittsburgh made the same mistake in 2016. Once protective scale is disturbed, it takes months to rebuild. During that window, lead exposure jumps.
Pittsburgh residents can check their service line material using PWSA's online lookup tool (pgh2o.com/lead-service-line-lookup). If lead is present, request a free water test. PWSA prioritizes homes with children under six and pregnant women for expedited replacement. The utility covers the full cost of replacement–both public and private sides. No homeowner contribution is required. That's rare. Most cities require homeowners to pay for the private-side portion.
Detroit's water is supplied by the Great Lakes Water Authority (GLWA), which serves 40% of Michigan's population. GLWA's 2024 service line inventory documented over 80,000 lead service lines across its service area, with tens of thousands within Detroit city limits. Detroit prioritized school replacements after improved lead was detected in 57 Detroit Public Schools in 2018. The city replaced lead service lines at all affected schools by 2020.
Detroit's 90th-percentile lead level was 7.8 ppb in 2024. The city replaced 4,200 lead service lines in 2023. GLWA estimates full replacement will cost $500 million across the service area. Michigan allocated $200 million in IIJA funds to Detroit and surrounding counties for lead service line replacement in 2023. The city expects to complete replacement by 2033.
Detroit's water quality improved significantly after the city switched from Detroit Water and Sewerage Department (DWSD) to GLWA regional supply in 2014. Flint, by contrast, switched away from GLWA to the Flint River in 2014–the decision that triggered the Flint crisis. Flint rejoined GLWA supply in 2015, and lead levels dropped within months. The lesson: source water matters, but treatment matters more. Flint's Flint River water was corrosive; Detroit's GLWA water is treated with orthophosphate. Same region, different outcomes.
Detroit residents can request free lead testing at detroitmi.gov/leadtesting. The city also offers free water filters and replacement cartridges for homes with lead service lines or improved test results. Detroit's "Get the Lead Out" program provides income-qualified homeowners with zero-cost service line replacement. Check eligibility at detroitmi.gov/gettheleadout.
Jackson's water crisis is not primarily about lead, but lead is part of the story. In August 2022, flooding damaged the OB Curtis Water Treatment Plant, leaving 150,000 Jackson residents without safe drinking water for weeks. The EPA issued an Administrative Order in November 2022 placing Jackson's water system under federal oversight. The order cited chronic violations of the Safe Drinking Water Act, including Lead and Copper Rule monitoring failures.
Jackson's 2023 Consumer Confidence Report listed the 90th-percentile lead level as 12 ppb. The city has roughly 25,000 lead service lines according to a 2022 estimate by the Mississippi State Department of Health. Jackson has replaced fewer than 500 lead service lines since 2020. Under the EPA order, the city must accelerate replacement and improve corrosion control. The EPA appointed an interim third-party manager to oversee the water system in 2023.
Jackson's challenges go beyond lead. The city's water infrastructure is collapsing. Pipes installed in the 1920s are failing. The treatment plant operates on backup systems. Water pressure drops below safe levels during peak demand. The Biden administration allocated $600 million in IIJA and EPA emergency funds to Jackson in 2023 for water system repairs. Lead service line replacement is part of the project, but stabilizing the treatment system comes first.
Jackson residents should use bottled water or NSF/ANSI 53-certified filters until the EPA confirms the system is stable. Free lead testing is available through the Mississippi State Department of Health (msdh.ms.gov/leadtesting). Do not drink unfiltered tap water if you are pregnant, have young children, or have compromised immunity. Jackson's situation is the clearest example of what happens when infrastructure investment is deferred for decades.
Newark does not belong on a "worst cities" list in 2026, but it's the necessary counterpoint. Newark had over 23,000 lead service lines in 2018. The city's 90th-percentile lead level hit 17 ppb that year, triggering an EPA action level exceedance. The city responded aggressively. Between 2019 and 2022, Newark replaced all 23,000 lead service lines–an average of 7,600 per year. By 2023, Newark's 90th-percentile lead level was 3 ppb, among the lowest of any major US city.
Newark used a combination of federal grants, state revolving fund loans, and revenue bonds to finance the replacement. The city hired multiple contractors to work simultaneously across different zones. Residents paid nothing. The city covered both public and private-side costs. Newark's success proves that full lead service line replacement is achievable within 3-5 years if the political will and funding align.
The contrast is instructive. Chicago has 17 times as many lead service lines as Newark had, but it also has 5 times the population and 10 times the budget. Scale matters, but so does urgency. Newark treated lead service lines as an emergency. Chicago treats it as a long-term capital project. The LCRI will force faster action, but cities that move now will finish sooner.
If you live in one of these cities–or any city with documented lead service lines–take these steps:
Lead in drinking water is a solved problem–we know what causes it, we know how to fix it, and we have the funding to do it. What's missing is speed. The cities that act now will be done by 2030. The cities that wait will still be replacing lines in 2045.
You can check your water quality by zip code using our free lookup tool. It pulls EPA data for PFAS, lead, and other contaminants detected in your area. If lead service lines are documented in your system, we'll show you that too.
Which US city has the most lead pipes? Chicago has the most lead service lines in the United States–over 400,000 according to the Chicago Department of Water Management's 2023 inventory. Cleveland is second with over 200,000. Milwaukee, Detroit, and Pittsburgh each have tens of thousands remaining. Under the EPA's October 2024 Lead and Copper Rule Improvements, Chicago received a 20-year replacement extension, while most other cities must complete replacement by 2037.
Is Flint Michigan water still bad? No. Flint's 90th-percentile lead level fell below the EPA action limit of 15 ppb in 2019 and has remained below it since. The city replaced over 25,000 lead service lines between 2016 and 2020 and switched back to corrosion-controlled Detroit Water and Sewerage Department supply in 2015. Flint's water quality now meets federal standards, though the city continues to monitor closely.
How do I find out if my city has lead in the water? Check your city's Consumer Confidence Report (CCR), published annually by every public water system. Search "[your city name] consumer confidence report" or visit the EPA's CCR database. The report lists the 90th-percentile lead level. If it's above 5 ppb, lead is present. You can also request a free water test from your utility or check the EPA's ECHO database for Lead and Copper Rule violations.
When will all lead pipes be replaced in the US? The EPA's October 2024 Lead and Copper Rule Improvements requires utilities to inventory all lead service lines by 2027 and replace them within 10 years–meaning full replacement by 2037 for most systems. Cities with large inventories (like Chicago) received extensions up to 20 years. The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act allocated $15 billion for lead service line replacement, but full replacement depends on whether cities meet their deadlines.
What is the EPA action level for lead? The EPA's action level for lead in drinking water is 15 parts per billion (ppb), measured at the 90th percentile of high-risk homes. If more than 10% of sampled homes exceed 15 ppb, the utility must take corrective action–optimize corrosion control, educate the public, and in severe cases, replace lead service lines. The World Health Organization's guidance value is 5 ppb, a stricter standard than the EPA uses.